Welcome to Mind Care Guide.

Feeling lost in the complex intersection of trauma and addiction? You're not alone. This is a safe space to begin understanding the challenges and discovering pathways to healing. Let's take your first step together towards recognizing the co-occurring nature of trauma and addiction recovery, and explore how understanding this connection can empower your journey to lasting well-being.

Your First Step Towards Healing: Recognizing Co-Occurring Trauma and Addiction

Understanding the Link Between Trauma and Substance Use Disorder

Defining Co-Occurring Disorders: Trauma and SUD

Co-occurring disorders, often referred to as dual diagnosis, describe a situation where an individual experiences both a mental health disorder and a substance use disorder (SUD) simultaneously. In this context, we focus specifically on the significant overlap between trauma-related disorders, such as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) or Complex Trauma, and SUD.

This co-occurrence is not rare; in fact, it's quite common. Estimates from organizations like the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) indicate that a substantial percentage of individuals seeking SUD treatment also have a history of trauma, and conversely, many people with trauma disorders also struggle with substance use.

Understanding this definition is crucial because it highlights that neither condition exists in a vacuum. The trauma and the substance use disorder are deeply intertwined, influencing each other in complex ways. Treating only one without addressing the other significantly hampers the chances of successful, long-term healing and effective trauma and addiction recovery. Recognizing this dual challenge is the foundational step toward finding appropriate and integrated care.

The Interplay Between Traumatic Experiences and SUD

The relationship between traumatic experiences and substance use disorder is a dynamic and often destructive interplay. Trauma, whether a single overwhelming event or chronic exposure to adversity, can fundamentally alter brain structure and function, particularly areas involved in stress response, emotion regulation, and decision-making. For instance, the amygdala, the brain's alarm system, may become hyperactive, while the prefrontal cortex, responsible for executive functions and impulse control, may be impaired. These changes can leave individuals in a state of chronic hyperarousal or emotional dysregulation, making them highly vulnerable to seeking external means to manage their internal distress.

Substance use then enters this picture, often as a perceived solution to these overwhelming feelings. However, while substances may offer temporary relief, they can also exacerbate trauma symptoms over time and increase the likelihood of engaging in risky behaviors, potentially leading to further traumatic experiences or re-traumatization. This creates a vicious cycle where trauma fuels substance use, and substance use perpetuates the impact of trauma, making integrated trauma and addiction recovery essential.

Trauma's Role in SUD: Coping Mechanisms and Self-Medication

For many individuals, substance use begins as an attempt to cope with the unbearable symptoms and emotional pain stemming from unresolved trauma. Flashbacks, nightmares, intense anxiety, emotional numbness, and difficulty feeling safe in the world are incredibly distressing. Substances can appear to offer a way to quiet the intrusive thoughts, numb the painful feelings, or escape the overwhelming reality of the trauma's aftermath. This is often referred to as self-medication.

While substances might provide fleeting relief, they ultimately prevent individuals from developing healthy, sustainable coping mechanisms. Using depressants like alcohol or opioids might temporarily dampen anxiety or numb emotional pain, while stimulants might be used to counteract feelings of fatigue or depression associated with trauma. However, this self-medication prevents the processing of trauma, leading to dependence and addiction, trapping the individual further in the cycle. Effective trauma and addiction recovery requires breaking this pattern by addressing the root causes of substance use.

Recognizing the Signs: Identifying Trauma and SUD

Trauma Symptoms That May Increase SUD Risk

Identifying trauma symptoms is a critical step in understanding the pathway to co-occurring SUD. These symptoms can manifest in various ways and significantly increase a person's vulnerability to substance use. Common symptoms include intrusive thoughts or memories of the trauma, nightmares, flashbacks where the person feels like the trauma is happening again, and intense psychological distress or physiological reactions when reminded of the traumatic event. Avoidance is also a key symptom, involving efforts to avoid distressing memories, thoughts, feelings, or external reminders associated with the trauma.

Beyond intrusive and avoidance symptoms, trauma can lead to negative alterations in cognition and mood, such as difficulty remembering aspects of the trauma, negative beliefs about oneself or the world, distorted blame, persistent negative emotional states (fear, horror, anger, guilt, shame), diminished interest in activities, and feelings of detachment from others. Changes in arousal and reactivity are also common, including irritability, angry outbursts, reckless or self-destructive behavior, hypervigilance, exaggerated startle response, and difficulty concentrating or sleeping.

Research indicates that individuals experiencing these symptoms are at significantly higher risk for developing SUD as they seek relief. Estimates suggest that perhaps 50-70% of individuals with PTSD also meet criteria for a substance use disorder at some point in their lives.

Identifying SUD: Physical, Behavioral, and Psychological Indicators

Recognizing a substance use disorder involves observing a pattern of physical, behavioral, and psychological changes. Physical indicators might include changes in appearance (neglecting hygiene), tolerance (needing more of the substance for the same effect), withdrawal symptoms when substance use stops, and physical health problems related to substance use (e.g., liver issues, respiratory problems). Behavioral signs are often noticeable and include secrecy around substance use, lying about consumption, financial problems due to purchasing substances, neglecting responsibilities at work, school, or home, engaging in risky behaviors while intoxicated, and failed attempts to cut down or control use.

Psychological indicators are also prevalent and can include mood swings, increased irritability, depression, anxiety, paranoia, loss of interest in activities once enjoyed, and continued substance use despite knowing it is causing psychological or physical problems. For individuals with co-occurring trauma, these signs can sometimes be misinterpreted solely as trauma symptoms, making accurate identification challenging. For example, social withdrawal could be a symptom of trauma-related avoidance or SUD-related secrecy. Comprehensive assessment is needed to differentiate and identify both sets of symptoms for effective trauma and addiction recovery.

Screening Tools for Potential Co-Occurring Trauma and SUD

Given the high prevalence of co-occurring trauma and SUD, routine screening for both conditions is a vital step in healthcare and treatment settings. Screening tools are brief questionnaires or interviews designed to identify individuals who may be at risk or who require further, more comprehensive assessment. They are not diagnostic but serve as a crucial first step to ensure that potential issues are not overlooked. Examples of trauma screening tools include the Trauma Screening Questionnaire (TSQ) or the Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) questionnaire, which assesses exposure to various types of childhood trauma.

For substance use, commonly used screening tools include the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) or the Drug Abuse Screening Test (DAST). The most effective approach for identifying co-occurring disorders involves using integrated screening tools or administering both types of screens routinely. For example, some intake assessments in treatment centers include specific questions about trauma history alongside detailed inquiries about substance use patterns. Implementing such screening protocols helps ensure that individuals receive appropriate referrals for specialized assessment and integrated care, paving the way for comprehensive trauma and addiction recovery.

The Impact of Untreated Trauma on SUD Recovery

How Trauma Affects Traditional SUD Treatment

Traditional substance use disorder treatment models, which may focus primarily on the addiction itself through approaches like the Twelve Steps or cognitive-behavioral techniques centered solely on substance use triggers, can be significantly impacted by untreated trauma. Without recognizing and addressing the trauma history, many aspects of standard treatment can inadvertently trigger trauma responses. For instance, group therapy discussions about past behaviors while intoxicated might evoke traumatic memories or feelings of shame. Confrontational approaches sometimes used in older SUD models can be particularly re-traumatizing for individuals with complex trauma histories who have experienced abuse of power.

Furthermore, individuals with untreated trauma may struggle with core components of traditional SUD treatment, such as building trust with therapists and peers, regulating intense emotions that arise during therapy, or feeling safe enough to be vulnerable. Their trauma responses, such as dissociation or hypervigilance, can interfere with their ability to engage fully in sessions or retain information. This can lead to higher dropout rates, lack of progress, and increased feelings of hopelessness, undermining their efforts towards trauma and addiction recovery.

The Cycle of Trauma, SUD, and Relapse

The presence of untreated trauma creates a potent vulnerability for relapse in substance use disorder recovery. As discussed earlier, substances often serve as a coping mechanism for trauma symptoms. When an individual stops using substances but the underlying trauma remains unaddressed, they lose their primary (though maladaptive) coping tool without having developed healthy alternatives. This leaves them highly susceptible when faced with trauma triggers or everyday stressors that evoke trauma responses.

A trauma trigger – which could be a sight, sound, smell, person, or situation reminiscent of the original trauma – can instantly flood the individual with overwhelming emotions, physical sensations, or intrusive memories. Without effective coping strategies for these intense states, the individual may revert to the familiar, albeit harmful, behavior of substance use to gain immediate relief.

This perpetuates the cycle: trauma leads to substance use, which hinders trauma processing and recovery, increasing the likelihood of future trauma exposure or re-traumatization, which in turn makes the individual more vulnerable to relapse. Breaking this cycle requires integrated treatment focused on both trauma and addiction recovery.

Addressing Trauma for Successful, Long-Term Recovery

Mounting evidence unequivocally demonstrates that addressing trauma is not merely beneficial but often essential for achieving successful, long-term substance use disorder recovery, especially when the two conditions co-occur. Treating SUD in isolation while ignoring trauma is akin to treating a symptom without addressing the root cause. While abstinence may be achieved temporarily, the underlying pain and dysregulation caused by trauma remain, creating a constant pull back towards self-medication.

Studies comparing outcomes for individuals receiving integrated treatment versus those treated only for SUD show significant differences. For example, research indicates that individuals participating in integrated trauma and addiction recovery programs experience lower rates of relapse, reduced trauma symptoms, improved mental health, and better overall quality of life compared to those receiving standard SUD care. Addressing the trauma allows individuals to process their experiences, develop healthy coping skills, and build a stable emotional foundation necessary to sustain abstinence and thrive in recovery.

Seeking Help: Treatment for Co-Occurring Trauma and SUD

Finding Trauma-Informed SUD Treatment Programs

Seeking help for co-occurring trauma and substance use disorder requires finding treatment programs equipped to handle this complex dual challenge. The most effective programs are typically those that are explicitly trauma-informed. This means the entire organization, from administrative staff to clinical therapists, understands the widespread impact of trauma and incorporates this understanding into all aspects of care. When searching for a program, look for facilities that mention treating dual diagnosis or co-occurring disorders as a specialty.

Inquire specifically about their approach to trauma. Do they offer trauma-specific therapies? Are their staff trained in trauma-informed care principles? Do they prioritize creating a safe and supportive environment? A program that treats co-occurring disorders but is not trauma-informed may still inadvertently trigger trauma responses. Identifying programs that integrate a deep understanding of trauma into their SUD treatment framework is crucial for effective trauma and addiction recovery.

Integrated Treatment Approaches for Trauma and SUD Recovery

The gold standard for treating co-occurring trauma and substance use disorder is an integrated treatment approach. This means that both conditions are treated simultaneously by the same clinical team or within the same program structure. Unlike sequential treatment (treating one disorder completely before starting the other) or parallel treatment (treating both disorders separately by different providers), integrated care ensures that the intricate relationship between trauma and substance use is always considered.

In an integrated model, therapists understand how substance use might be a coping mechanism for trauma symptoms and how trauma symptoms might impede recovery from SUD. Treatment plans are developed collaboratively, addressing both sets of challenges in a coordinated manner. This might involve scheduling therapy sessions and group work carefully to avoid overwhelming the individual, ensuring that trauma processing occurs within a safe and stable context supported by concurrent SUD treatment. This holistic approach is far more effective in promoting lasting trauma and addiction recovery.

Therapies for Co-Occurring Disorders: EMDR, CBT, and Others

Several evidence-based therapies have proven effective in treating co-occurring trauma and substance use disorder. These therapies are typically delivered within the framework of integrated treatment. Trauma-Focused Cognitive Behavioral Therapy ( TF-CBT) is one such approach, helping individuals process traumatic memories and learn coping skills. Dialectical Behavior Therapy ( DBT) is particularly useful for individuals with difficulties regulating intense emotions, a common challenge for those with complex trauma and SUD; it teaches skills in mindfulness, distress tolerance, emotion regulation, and interpersonal effectiveness.

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing ( EMDR) is another widely used therapy for trauma processing that can be adapted for individuals in recovery from SUD. It involves processing distressing memories while focusing on external stimuli, which can help reduce the emotional intensity of the trauma. Other therapies like Seeking Safety are specifically designed for individuals with co-occurring trauma and SUD, focusing on developing safety and healthy coping skills rather than detailed trauma narratives. The choice of therapy depends on the individual's specific needs, trauma history, and stage of trauma and addiction recovery.

Trauma-Informed Care: A Holistic Approach

What is Trauma-Informed Care?

Trauma-informed care is not a specific therapeutic technique but rather a fundamental shift in perspective and an organizational approach to service delivery. It recognizes the widespread impact of trauma and understands potential paths for recovery, integrating knowledge about trauma into policies, procedures, and practices across all levels of an organization. It acknowledges that individuals receiving services may have trauma histories and that these experiences can profoundly affect their health, behavior, and engagement with care.

Instead of asking "What's wrong with you? ", a trauma-informed approach asks "What happened to you?". It moves away from pathologizing symptoms and behaviors, viewing them instead as adaptive responses to traumatic experiences. This approach aims to avoid re-traumatization and create an environment where individuals feel safe, respected, and empowered. Implementing trauma-informed care principles is essential for any service provider working with vulnerable populations, particularly in settings focused on mental health and trauma and addiction recovery.

Principles of Trauma-Informed Care in SUD Treatment

Trauma-informed care is guided by several key principles that should permeate every aspect of substance use disorder treatment for individuals with co-occurring trauma. These principles include:

• Safety: Ensuring physical and emotional safety for both clients and staff. This means creating a predictable, well-managed environment free from threats and where individuals feel secure enough to engage in healing.
• Trustworthiness & Transparency: Making decisions and operations transparent to build and maintain trust. This involves clear communication about treatment processes, expectations, and boundaries.
• Peer Support: Incorporating peer support specialists who have lived experience with trauma and/or addiction. This fosters hope, builds rapport, and validates client experiences.
• Collaboration & Mutuality: Partnering with clients in their care planning and decision-making. Recognizing that healing happens in relationships and power dynamics are intentionally leveled.
• Empowerment, Voice, & Choice: Supporting clients in feeling empowered and having a voice in their recovery journey. Providing options and choices whenever possible helps restore a sense of control lost in trauma.
• Cultural, Historical, & Gender Issues: Actively moving past cultural stereotypes and biases. Recognizing and addressing historical trauma and how gender impacts trauma experiences and recovery.

Adhering to these principles creates a foundation of safety and trust that is paramount for individuals to engage effectively in trauma and addiction recovery.

Creating a Safe Environment for Recovery

Creating a safe environment is perhaps the most crucial principle of trauma-informed care, especially in the context of trauma and addiction recovery. For individuals with trauma histories, feeling unsafe can trigger intense survival responses (fight, flight, freeze) that make engaging in therapy or group work impossible. Safety encompasses both physical and emotional dimensions. Physical safety involves ensuring the treatment facility is secure, well-lit, and free from potential dangers. Clear rules and boundaries also contribute to a sense of predictability and physical safety.

Emotional safety is built through consistent, predictable, and non-judgmental interactions with staff and peers. Staff are trained to be aware of potential triggers and respond in sensitive, supportive ways. Clients are educated about trauma responses and normalized for their experiences. Group therapy is facilitated carefully to prevent re-traumatization. When individuals feel truly safe within the treatment setting, they are more likely to lower their defenses, build trust, and begin the difficult but necessary work of processing trauma and engaging fully in their trauma and addiction recovery.

Building a Foundation for Recovery: Strategies and Support

Developing Healthy Coping Mechanisms for Trauma Triggers

A cornerstone of successful trauma and addiction recovery is the development of healthy coping mechanisms to manage trauma triggers and the intense emotions they evoke, replacing substance use as the default response. This involves first identifying personal triggers, which can be internal (thoughts, feelings, bodily sensations) or external (people, places, sounds, smells). Once triggers are identified, individuals can proactively develop and practice alternative ways to respond.

Healthy coping strategies are diverse and individualized. Examples include grounding techniques, which help bring a person back to the present moment during flashbacks or dissociation (e.g., the 5-4-3-2-1 method: identify 5 things you see, 4 things you feel, 3 things you hear, 2 things you smell, 1 thing you taste).

Mindfulness practices, deep breathing exercises, progressive muscle relaxation, engaging in physical activity, creative expression (art, music, writing), spending time in nature, and connecting with supportive people are all effective strategies. Practicing these skills regularly before a trigger occurs makes them more accessible when needed, strengthening the foundation for trauma and addiction recovery.

The Role of Support Groups in Recovery

Support groups play a vital role in the journey of trauma and addiction recovery, providing a sense of community, understanding, and shared experience. Groups like Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), Narcotics Anonymous (NA), and SMART Recovery offer invaluable peer support for substance use challenges. For individuals with co-occurring trauma, finding support groups that are trauma-informed or specifically address trauma can be particularly beneficial.

Sharing experiences with others who have navigated similar challenges can reduce feelings of isolation and shame. Listening to others' stories can offer new perspectives and hope. Peer support provides validation and practical advice from those who have walked the path of recovery. However, it is important for individuals with trauma to find groups where they feel safe and where sharing is not pressured or potentially re-traumatizing. Connecting with a supportive network is a powerful protective factor in sustained trauma and addiction recovery.

Self-Care Strategies for Long-Term Recovery

Self-care is not a luxury but an essential component of long-term trauma and addiction recovery. It involves intentionally engaging in activities that nourish physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual well-being. For individuals healing from trauma and addiction, consistent self-care helps regulate the nervous system, build resilience, and prevent burnout, which can be a significant risk factor for relapse.

Examples of self-care strategies include prioritizing sufficient sleep (experts often recommend 7-9 hours per night for adults), maintaining a balanced and nutritious diet, engaging in regular physical activity, and practicing good hygiene. Emotionally, self-care involves setting healthy boundaries, practicing self-compassion, engaging in enjoyable hobbies, and seeking support when needed. Social self-care includes connecting with supportive friends and family. Spiritual self-care might involve mindfulness, meditation, spending time in nature, or engaging in practices aligned with personal beliefs. Integrating these practices into daily life builds a strong, sustainable foundation for trauma and addiction recovery.

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Overcoming Challenges in Recovery

Addressing Stigma Associated with Co-Occurring Disorders

Individuals navigating co-occurring trauma and substance use disorder often face a double layer of stigma: the pervasive societal stigma associated with addiction and the stigma surrounding mental health conditions and trauma. This stigma can manifest as judgment, discrimination, and misunderstanding from friends, family, employers, and even healthcare providers. Internalizing this stigma can lead to deep feelings of shame, worthlessness, and isolation, making it incredibly difficult to seek help or maintain recovery.

Overcoming this challenge requires both individual resilience and broader societal change. On an individual level, connecting with supportive communities and therapy can help challenge internalized negative beliefs. Education is key to combating external stigma – helping others understand that addiction and trauma responses are complex health issues, not moral failings. Advocating for compassionate language, sharing recovery stories (when comfortable and safe), and supporting policies that promote access to integrated care are crucial steps in reducing stigma and fostering an environment supportive of trauma and addiction recovery.

Managing Co-occurring Mental Health Conditions

The landscape of co-occurring disorders is often more complex than just trauma and SUD. Many individuals also experience other mental health conditions, such as depression, anxiety disorders, bipolar disorder, or eating disorders. These conditions can significantly impact both trauma processing and substance use recovery, sometimes exacerbating symptoms or interfering with treatment engagement. For example, severe depression can drain motivation needed for therapy, while intense anxiety might increase reliance on substances or avoidance behaviors.

Effective trauma and addiction recovery in this context requires a comprehensive assessment and an integrated treatment plan that addresses all co-occurring conditions simultaneously. Therapists and medical providers must work together to manage symptoms across the board, potentially involving medication management for conditions like depression or bipolar disorder alongside trauma-focused therapy and SUD treatment. Treating all conditions concurrently increases the likelihood of stable mental health and sustained recovery.

Relapse Prevention in the Context of Trauma and SUD

Relapse prevention is an ongoing process in recovery, and for individuals with co-occurring trauma and SUD, it requires specific strategies tailored to the interplay of these conditions. A strong relapse prevention plan involves identifying personal triggers (including trauma triggers), developing coping skills, building a robust support network, and having a clear plan for what to do if cravings or overwhelming trauma symptoms arise.

For those with trauma histories, the plan must explicitly address how to manage flashbacks, nightmares, hyperarousal, or dissociative states without resorting to substance use. This might involve utilizing the healthy coping mechanisms learned in therapy, reaching out to a sponsor or therapist, engaging in grounding exercises, or utilizing crisis support resources. Recognizing early warning signs – subtle shifts in mood, behavior, or thinking that precede a relapse – is also vital. Continuous self-awareness, ongoing support, and a commitment to practicing learned skills are essential for navigating challenges and maintaining long-term trauma and addiction recovery.

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Resources for Support

National Helplines and Organizations

Numerous national helplines and organizations offer vital support and information for individuals struggling with mental health, trauma, and substance use disorders. These resources can provide confidential assistance, crisis intervention, information about co-occurring disorders, and referrals to treatment programs and local support services. While specific links cannot be provided here, searching online for national mental health helplines or substance abuse helplines can yield valuable results.

These organizations often have websites with extensive information, articles, and resources about trauma, addiction, and the complexities of co-occurring conditions. They can be a crucial first point of contact for someone seeking help, offering guidance on how to find appropriate care and support for their trauma and addiction recovery journey.

Finding Local Trauma-Informed Therapists

Locating a qualified therapist who specializes in both trauma and substance use or co-occurring disorders is a key step in accessing appropriate care. When searching for a therapist, look for credentials and experience in treating trauma (e.g., training in EMDR, TF-CBT, or other trauma-focused modalities) as well as experience working with addiction. Many therapists list their areas of expertise on their professional websites or profiles.

Utilizing online directories provided by professional psychological or counseling associations can be helpful in filtering by specialization. Don't hesitate to ask potential therapists about their experience and approach to treating co-occurring trauma and SUD during an initial consultation. Finding a therapist with whom you feel safe, comfortable, and understood is paramount for effective trauma and addiction recovery.

Recommended Resources

Beyond professional therapy and support groups, engaging with educational resources can empower individuals in their trauma and addiction recovery. Reputable books, websites from established mental health and addiction organizations, and educational materials can provide valuable insights into the nature of trauma, addiction, and the recovery process. Look for resources that are evidence-based and align with trauma-informed principles.

While the internet offers a vast amount of information, it's important to critically evaluate sources and prioritize information from qualified professionals or recognized institutions. These resources can help individuals understand their experiences, learn new coping strategies, and feel more empowered in their journey. However, they should complement, not replace, professional guidance and support tailored to your specific needs in trauma and addiction recovery.

Final Reflection: Embracing the Journey to Wholeness

The interconnectedness of trauma and addiction is no longer a niche concept; it's a critical understanding necessary for effective recovery. Ignoring this crucial link perpetuates a cycle of suffering, hindering true healing and lasting well-being. The path to recovery requires acknowledging the deep-seated wounds that fuel addictive behaviors, paving the way for genuine transformation.

The journey of healing from co-occurring trauma and addiction is profoundly personal, a testament to the resilience of the human spirit. It's a journey I've witnessed countless times in my work, and one that underscores the importance of compassionate understanding and tailored support. The wound is where the light enters you. – Rumi. This quote beautifully captures the transformative potential that lies within the process of confronting and healing from trauma, ultimately leading to a more authentic and fulfilling life. The impact of this understanding is far-reaching, influencing not only individual lives but also shaping the landscape of mental health care and societal attitudes toward addiction.

Now, consider your own life. Have you experienced moments where unresolved trauma might have contributed to unhealthy coping mechanisms? This article isn't just about understanding a complex issue; it's a call to action. Take the time to reflect on your own experiences, seek professional guidance if needed, and remember that healing is possible. Embrace the journey, one step at a time, and discover the strength and resilience within yourself to build a life free from the chains of trauma and addiction. You deserve to live a life filled with joy, peace, and genuine well-being.

Unlock Your Healing Journey: Take the First Step Today

Thank you for taking the time to learn more about the crucial connection between trauma and addiction. We hope this article provided valuable insights into understanding your unique challenges and paving the way for recovery. Now, let's put that knowledge into action!

• Prioritize self-care: Identify one small act of self-compassion you can commit to daily. This could be anything from a mindful breathing exercise to a relaxing bath. Even tiny steps build momentum!
• Connect with a support group: Reach out to a local support network or explore online communities dedicated to co-occurring disorders. Sharing your experience can be incredibly empowering.
• Explore professional guidance: Consider scheduling a consultation with a therapist specializing in trauma-informed care. This is a vital step towards building a personalized healing plan.

What’s one small step you can take today to nurture your well-being and begin your journey towards healing? Share your thoughts below!